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Under the Raj education concentrated on reproducing a small Anglicized elite capable of administering the country. Adult education was minimal and confined to a few urban centres. After Independence Indian adult education was burdened with the project of modernization as India under Nehru and the nationalist movement desperately tried to industrialize the state according to western and soviet models. Despite the relative success of the first Five Year Plan's literacy programme, levels of funding dropped while bureaucracy and falsification of figures increased. Despite Gandhi, Indian education also suffered from elitist discourses inherited from the British Raj which assumed a ‘trickle‐down’ effect and resulted in the over‐balancing of the system towards higher education. Western experts (with the honourable exception of Frank Laubach) have tended to confirm the bias, but even Laubach's agenda raised suspicion. Only with the coming of the NAEP in 1978 was a serious attempt to redress the balance made. Subsequent radical educationists have once again taken up the banner of ‘Gandhi’ in the cause of educating the very poor and the project of modernization has given way to more needs‐based programmes. 相似文献
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Maureen Woodhall 《Higher Education Quarterly》1989,43(2):142-159
Since the introduction of full-cost fees for overseas students in 1980 there has been a marked increase in marketing activities in British universities, polytechnics and in some other institutions of higher education. A survey of 33 universities and public sector higher education institutions in 1985 showed that 90 per cent undertook some form of marketing to attract overseas students, and 70 per cent reported that they had intensified their recruitment and marketing efforts since 1980. The British Council's Education Counselling Service, established in 1984, is now extremely active in certain countries, such as Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong. As well as increasing their publicity, many institutions have also strengthened their support services for overseas students and have developed new courses for the overseas market, particularly short courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. Although there have been some instances of institutions adopting a 'hard sell' approach, most recognise the need for 'responsible recruitment' policies, and many are now developing comprehensive strategies covering admissions, financial support, the structure and content of courses for overseas students and academic and pastoral support services, as well as marketing. Partly as a result of increased marketing activities, the number of overseas students, which fell sharply after 1980, has been rising steadily since 1983, and the number in universities is higher now than before the introduction of full-cost fees. It is estimated that spending by overseas students now exceeds £1 billion. 相似文献
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